SB 



DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

SPECIAL REPORT— No. 26. 



REPORT 



CULTURE OF SUMAC IN SICILY, 



ITS PREPARATION FOR MARKET 



EUROPE AND THE UNITED STATES. 



PREPARED, UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE, 

By WM. McMURTRIE, Ph. T>. 



"WASIIIXGTO]^-: 

GOVERNMENT TEINTING OFFICE. 
1880. 



iHMtT«^ 



n" DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

SPECIAL REPORT— No. 26. 



REPORT 






CULTURE OF SUMAC IN SICILY, 



ITS PREPARATION FOR MARKET 



EUROPE AND THE UNITED STATES. 



PREPARED, UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE, 

By WM. McMURTRIE, Ph. D. 




■</ 







WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNJIENT PRINTING OFFICE. 
1880. X^ 



lA" 



^ Co"" 



By transfer 
i;.M 13 1908 






-LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. 



Washington, D. C, 

June 30, 1880. 

Sir : I have tbe Louor to submit tlie following report upon " Sumac, 
its culture iu Sicily, aiul its preparation for market in Europe and the 
United States." For the information relative to the Sicilian practices 
vre are indebted to the valuable little work of Guiseppe Inzenga, of Pa- 
lermo, Sicily, entitled Manuale Pratico della Coltivazione del Sommacco 
in i'ilcilia, to which we have been referred by the officers of the Italian 
Ministry of Agriculture, and an abstract of which was published in the 
Bulletin Menseul de la Societe d^acclimation de Paris, ser. 3, t. 4, 1877. 

The representations of the botanical specimens of the different varie- 
ties wei'e prepared from dra wi n gs made by Mr. George Marx of specimens 
furnished by Dr. George Vasey, Botanist to the Department,* and for 
the later information concerning the methods of collecting and curing 
tbe leaves at i)resent employed in Virginia, we are indebted to Mr. 
German Smith, of Winchester, and Mr. John G. Hurkamp, of Freder- 
icksburg. To the table of statistics of importations of sumac imported 
to the United States and taken from the rei>ort for 1877, I have added 
the figures for 1877, 1878, and 1879, reported by the bureau of statis- 
tics of the Treasury Department, from which source the other figures 
were originally obtained. 

Eespectfully submitted. 

WM. McMURTEIE. 

Hon. Wm. G. LeDuc, 

Commissioner of Agriculture. 

* The cut of Ehuspentaphylla was kindly furnished by Dr. Asa Gray, of Cambridge 
Mass. 



THE CULTURE AND PREPARATION OF SUMAC IN ITALY. 



The frequent requests made to the department for information con- 
cerning the culture of sumac in dift'erent parts of the worUl and its 
production for market, seem to render it advisable to bring together in 
a succinct and brief statement the authoritative knowledge that is ob- 
tainable on the subject. In such a statement it would be of no practical 
value to enter into the details of the origin and history of the family of 
plants which yield this product, and what has been recorded is of so 
meager a character that no very satisfactory conclusion to the study of 
this branch of the subject could be arrived at. 

The plants yielding the commercial article known as sumac belong to 
the genus Rhus, and to the natural order Terehinthaceie of the conti- 
nental classification or Anicardaccfc of the English classific^atiou. Eep- 
resentatives of this genus may be found in almost every part of the 
temperate zones, but they do not all have the same A'alue for the pur- 
poses of tanning, to which the product they yield has been applied 
since the time of Pliny, who appears to have described it. In a study 
of the tanning materials of the expositions of London in 1862 and of 
Paris in 1807, Waguer* found that the sumac from different sources 
was prepared from the following varieties of plants : Rhus coriaria, Rhus 
cotinns, Rhus glabra, Rhus canadensis, Rhus typhina, Rhus peniaphylla, 
Arbutus uva ursi, and Coriaria myrtifulia. These several varieties are 
thus distributed among the di&erent countries placing the product on 
the markets : 

Sicily. — R. coriaria. 

Italy (Tuscany). — R. coriaria (often adulterated with leaves of Pis- 
taeia leuiiscus). 

Spain. — Several varieties of Rhus; appears in the markets as three 
varieties : Malaga or Priego, Maliua, and Valladolid. 

The Tyeol. — R. cotinus. 

France. — Coriaria nujrtifoKa, divided into four varieties : (a) Fauvis, 
(b) Douzcre, (c) Redoul or Redon, {d) Pudis. 

Algeria. — R. pentaphyllum, Tezera sumac, used by Arabs for mak- 
ing Morocco leather. 

North America. — R. glabra, R. canadensis, and R. typhina. 

* Wayiier's Jahresbericht der Chemischer TechnoJogie, 1871, 389, and Jakreshericht der 
Chemie, 1872, 1019. 



6 CULTURE OF SUMAC IN SICILY. 

Switzerland. — Arbutus uva ursi* (often mixed with leaves of Vac- 
cinium viiis idaea). 

None of these varieties have been successfully introduced into this 
country for extended cultivation, for all attempts at their acclimation 
have resulted in failure on account of the severity of the winter season. 
Experience has, however, fully demonstrated the value of our principal 
American varieties for tanning purposes ; and as we are thoroughly 
satisfied that they may be recommended on this account, and because 
of their extreme hardiness, our remarks will be contined princii)ally to 
them, and no further mention will be made of the European varieties 
with reference to their cultivation in the United States. 

The R. canadensis mentioned by Wagner is not generally kaown, and 
the varieties especially employed in this country are as follows : 

Shus typhina, staghorn sumac, growing 10 to 30 feet high. 

Rhus glahra, smooth or white sumac, growing 2 to 12 feet high. 

Rhus copaUina, dwarf or black sumac, growing 1 to 7 feet high. 

Rhus cotimis, fragrant sumac, is also a dwarf like the copaUina, and 
the name of these two varieties are often confounded. 

The values of these two varieties for tanning purposes is about the 
same. Other varieties growiug in different parts of the United States 
are mentioned by a writer in the Eeport of the Department of Agri- 
culture for 1869^ but as the quantity of the yield from them will not be 
sufficient to render them commercially valuable, we omit any further 
description of them. 

The external characteristics of the leaves of the different varieties we 

have mentioned may be seen in the accompanyiiig illustrations from 

drawings by Mr. George Mars of specimens ])repared by Dr. George 

Vasey, Botanist to the Department of Agriculture; to whom, also, the 

botanical descriptions are to be credited as well. 

Sumac grows spontaneously in such large quantity in various sections 
of the countrj', on jjoor, rough, and abandoned lauds and hill-sides, that 
it has never been subjected to cultivation ; yet it would appear that, as 
a matter of culture, it would prove a profitable crop. Of the varieties 
mentioned, Rhus (jluhra. is the most valuable for tanning purposes, and 
therefore that which we would recommend for cultivation ; though, on 
account of its smaller size, the Rhus copaUina might be found very con- 
venient, and its value is not much below that of the other. As stated 
with reference to the Sicilian variety, the leaves are the parts of the 
plant industrially employed.! 

The wood contains a yellow coloring matter, extractable bj' means of 
a dilute solution of potash or soda, which may be separated from its 

*Kawalier ( Jour-fiir prakt. Chemie LVIIJ, p. 195), fonud that tUe leaves of Arbutus 
uva vrsi coutaiiii'd cousiikTiil)lf perceutage of gallic- acid, but only traces of tauuic 
acid. (Wagncv. ) 

tE. Coez & Co., St. Denis, near Paris, uianufactnn s sumac extract, which is sold 
through E. Javal Bros. & Co., in Hambnrg, at 1(5 Ihalers per centner. The sviuiac 
extract concentrated in a vacuum-pan to a sirupy cdnsistency keeps well, and does 
not exhibit ihe acidity which is manifested in a simple deccction of sumac leaves. 



CULTURE OF SUMAC IN SICILY. 7 

alkaline solutiou by careful neutralization thei'eof with an acid. A 
similar product obtained from oak bark is known in the market asa 
yellow dye under the name offlavine, and consists of a mixture of quer- 
citrin and quercetin, sometimes used as a substitute for fustic. The 
wood has never attained any commercial importance on this account, 
nor is it probable that it will ever enter into competition with oak ex- 
tract or fustic wood. 

In cultivation of the plant, on account of its power to withstand dry- 
ness, the soil usually chosen is poor and lisjht; but a much larger crop 
of leaves can be secured from strong, rich, deep soils, and it is generally 
admitted that the product in the latter case is also better. In Italy 
limestone soils are considered to be especially suited to this culture, 
but our American varieties appear to be well suited to sandy and clay 
soils as well. The primary requisite in a soil is that it should be well 
drained, the presence of stagnant water about the roots having been 
found exceedingly prejudicial to the health of the plant. 

To prepare the soil for planting it should be plowed as deeply as pos- 
sible, and laid out in rows about 2 feet apart. In Italy small holes 
are made about 2 feet long, 7 inches wide, and 5 inches deep, and a 
plant is inserted at each end. A more convenient method for planting 
would, however, consist in marking the field in shallow furrows in one 
direction 2 feet apart, and then marking with a heavy plow tolerably 
deep furrows the same distance apart and at right angles with the first. 
A plant may then be placed in the deep furrows at each intersection, 
the furrow again filled with the plow, and the earth pressed about the 
plant with the foot. And if this work be done in early spring-time, as 
soon as the earth is just sufficiently dry to be conveniently worked with 
a plow, there can be no doubt that it would be successful, while it would 
certainly involve little cost. 

Plants are generally propagated from the young shoots which form 
each year about the base of an older plant, but they may also be pro- 
duced from cuttings made from young but well-ripened wood, rooted by 
setting in nursery or frames in the same manner as in the propagation 
of grape vines from cuttings. This latter method is scarcely ever re- 
quired, however, when the cultivation has been started, becanse the 
shoots from about the base of growing plants are so numerous, and 
rooted subjects from this source are so readily obtained. Plants are 
also produced from seed, and seedlings are always found to be strong, 
vigorous growers, and thoroughly hardy, btit on account of the greater 
time and labor involved in their production this method of propagation 
has not received extended application. The first method mentioned is 
that which will generally give quickest, and probal.)ly, all things being 
considered, the most satisfactory results. 

In selecting plants from any source there are certain points to be ob- 
served. 

1. Tlie shoots should come from young and vigorous plants. 

2. They should be over one foot long. 



8 CULTURE OF SUMAC IN SICILY. 

3. Those with large roots and few rootlets should be rejected. 

4. Slioots liaving' wliite roots, even though they may appear strong 
and robust, covered with a fibrous, white, silky down, are also to be re- 
jected. The condition described is an indication of the presence of a 
subterranean parasitic fungus, very injurious to the plant, capable of 
spreading to other pkmts and destroying the entire crop. 

5. A good shoot is one which is straight, of at least i inch diameter, 
18 inches long, furnished with numerous buds close to each other, root 
short, but covered with rootlets. 

The shoots for planting maj- be collected in autumn, after the leaves 
have fallen, and be jireserved in nursery until s])ring ; or this may be 
done in early spring, when the ground is very moist and soft. In either 
case care should be observed that the rootlets are not injured by drying 
or from any other cause. 

For starting the culture in this country with our native varieties, 
shoots may possibly be obtained from sections where plants are growing 
spontaneously ; but, should this be iuipossible, then, as before observed, 
cuttings may be made and rooted iu frames. For this jiurpose young, 
■well-ripened wood shouhl be taken iu the fall and cut in sections 8 or 
10 inches long and put in sand in warm frames and kept moist until the 
roots are formed. Tliey may then be put in good earth in pots or beds 
until time for planting iu open field in the spring. If i)ossible, the tem- 
perature of the lower portion of the sand should be maintained con- 
siderably higher than the surrounding atmosphere, and should be at 
least 70° F. Such conditions ai-e suited to promote the production of 
roots. 

The cnltnre to be given the plant is somewhat similar to that required 
by Indian corn ; that is, the earth about it should be kejit tolerably mel- 
low and free from weeds, and such conditions can jirobably be main- 
tained to a degree suflticient for sumac by working several times during 
the growing season with a cultivator and passing through the rows oc- 
casionally with a plow. All this work is not absolutely necessai-y to the 
life of the plant, but its vigor and consequently its yield iu leaves may 
be very considerably inci'eased and strengthened thereby. After the 
first year the number of operations maj' be diminished, but they should 
always be sufficient to keep the ground fi-ee from weeds and grass. 

Shortly after planting, and when the plant is well set, the stock is 
pruned to a length of to 8 inches, when the plant is left to assume any 
form, and is no further pruned except by the process of collecting the 
leaves, unless hand-picking is resorted to, and in such case, after the 
second year, i)ruuing takes place each year iu the fall or winter, the 
plant being reduced to a height of G to^lO inches. After the third year 
the plant begins to produce the shoots from aboirt its base, already men- 
tioned, and these should, if they are not needed for new plantations, be 
removed each year, for if left to develop they have a tendency to weaken 
the plant. 



CULTURE OF SUMAC IN SICILY. \) 

It" they are not removed during the summer, the ojieratiou should, 
•without fail, be eflecteil diirinj;- the fall or winter. 

The lir.st croi> of leaves may be secured diinno tlie year following that 
<>f planting. This crop develops and matures somewhat later than that 
from older plants, and in Italy it is not collected until the end of Aug- 
ust or the first of September, but there are reasons for believing that in 
this country, and especially in the Northern States, the collection of 
leaves from our native varieties should be made much earlier; first, be- 
cause the summer is much shorter, and second, because the habits of the 
varieties grown differ from the Sicilian variety. We should therefore 
recommend that this collection be made not later than the month of 
July or the first half of August. This, it must be observed, applies to 
leaves of jdants one year after jdanting. 

At the time mentioned all tlie leaves, except the young and tender 
ones of the extremities of the branches, are stripped off and placed in 
baskets, in which they are carried to a thrashing-floor, where they are 
spread out iu thin layers to dry. Here they must be frequently stirred 
and turned over, and for this purpose a fork with wooden prongs must 
always be employed. In the fall, when growth is finished, and before 
the leaves have had time to become red, those remaining on the extrem- 
ities are collected. To this end the branches are broken just below the 
tuft of leaves, and the latter allowed to remain suspended to the branch 
by a piece of bark not detached, and left in this condition until nearly 
or quite dry. They are then collected and treated in the same manner as 
other leaves, but the product obtained in this way is always of inferior 
quality. 

After the second year, croi>s of larger quantity and superior quality 
are obtained, and the collection is made in a different way and much 
more frequently, and the two methods followed in Sicily are as follows : 

1. By jiruning. 

2. By defoliation. 

The first, which is the most ancient, but which is much less costly, 
requires less care than the second, is simple and i-apid, but injurious to 
the future condition of the plant and the quantity of subsequent crops. 
The second, though slower, serves to better maintain the vigor of the 
plant and the uniform quantity of the crop from year to year, and iu 
consequence thereof reduces the necessity for frequent renewal of stocks. 
Harvest by pruning is carried on in Italy as follows : 
During the month of May the lower leaves, which, from greater age, 
appear to have attained full nmturity and may be iu danger of loss from 
falling, are removed in the same manner as that described for collecting 
the leaves from yearling jdants. Toward the end of June and during 
the course of July all bi'anches bearing leaves are cut away, reducing 
the plant to the principal stock, and by this means the crop is harvested 
and the plant pruned at the same time. But even in Sicily the time for 
this operation is limited to no absolute date or period, and varies with 



10 CULTURE OF SUMAC IN SICILY. 

the development of the leaf as indicated by cessation of growth and in- 
crease in size. In this condition, also, the leaves will have acquired their 
deepest green color and attained their maximum weight and best qual- 
ity. It is further stated that while this time varies according to coun- 
tries, about Palermo it is never earlier than June nor later than July. 

The harvest by pruning must always be made by men accustomed to 
the work and equal to the exertion required. Provided with a pruning 
bill, they cut off all leaf-bearing branches, collecting them on the left 
arm, until each has cut as much as he can conveniently' carry, when he 
places the armful on the ground with the butts in the direction of the 
prevailing wind, which, if tolerably strong, might carry away some of 
the leaves if turned in the opposite direction ; and, finally, he presses 
down the branches with the foot to make the heap more comijact and 
leave less surface exposed to the wind and sun. Another laborer de- 
posits a second armful in the same place, presses it with his foot in like 
manner as before, and the two deposits constitute a bniuUe. At the 
close of the operation there remain the young shoots which are formed 
about the base of the plant, the leaves of which are not fully developed, 
and consequently not fit for collection until at least twenty days later. 
After this time they are removed by hand, care being observed not to 
injure the buds, especially if the shoots are to be used for stocks in the 
formation of plantations of the following year. 

The second method mentioned, defoliation, or collectiou by hand, is 
carried on whenever the leaf may be fully develoi)ed and ripe, beginning 
at first with the lower leaves and continuing eventually to the ends of 
the branches, and takes place at three different times during the season; 
the first in May, the second late in July or early in August, and the 
third in September. At the last collection the extremities of the branches 
are broken down and the leaves allowed to dry before removal from the 
plant, as described under collections of the second j'ear. 

In the application of the second method the regular pruning is 
effected during the foil or winter, when the plant is dormant, and under 
such conditions the operation becomes a regenerative one, giving in this 
particular an advantage over the other method in which the pruning is 
effected in the summer when the plant is in full vegetative activity, and 
so has a strongly deteriorating influence. In both methods of pruning 
care should be observed to leave a long slanting section upon which 
water will be less likely to settle and promote decay, to the injury of the 
plant. 

The leaves collected by either of the methods described are dried in 
the open field where they have grown, and, when dried, are carried to a 
thrashing-floor to be beaten, or they are carried at once to the thrashing- 
floor and dried there. In the first instance the operation is rather more 
rapid, bat there is greater danger of injury by rain, the ett'ect of which 
is very deleterious, especially if it fall upon the leaves when they are 
partially dried. The damage resulting from this cause is always less if 



Culture of sumac in sicily. 11 

* 

the leaves are not lying npou the grouad, and are so arranged tbat the 
air may circnlate freely about and under them. In the pruning method 
the leaves are dried upon the branches and in the heaps where they are 
first deposited. Sometimes they are turned, but, as a general thing, it is 
considered better not to distnrb them nntil completely dried and ready 
for transportation to the thrashing-floor. In this way they are protected 
to a greater extent from the action of direct sunlight, which is said to 
be injurious to the quality of the product. When the leaves are col- 
lected by hand they are dried upon the thrashing-floor, where they are 
spread in thin layers and frequently stirred three or four times a daj'. 
The raw product thus secured, when perfectly dry, is placed on the 
thrashing flooi', which in Italy is a space of ground, generally circular, 
the surface of which has been made level, and has been packed very 
hard. It is here beaten with a flail to separate tlie leaves from the 
branches and stems. If this be done during the middle of the day when 
the leaves are most thoroughly dry and consequently brittle, they are 
reduced to small particles, jtroducing what is called sumac for grinding. 
But if it be done in the morning or on damp days, when the air is 
charged with moisture and the leaves are tough, they are separated from 
the stems more nearly entire and less broken, and the product obtained 
is called sumac for baling. The stems remaining after separation of 
sumac for baling still retain small particles of leaves attached to them, 
and they are therefore again beaten when perfectly dry for the produc- 
tion of a low-grade sumac, called by the Italians gammuzm. These are 
the methods followed in Italy, and the products are classed as follows: 

Clasa. Kehitive market value. 

Sumac for baliii!; - 2. 5 

Sumac for grindiu g 2. 3 

Sumac from yearling i>Iauts 1.5 

Sumac from euds of branches collected in auturau 1.0 

To prepare these different grades for ultimate consumption, they are 
ground in mills similar to those employed for crushing olives, that is, 
in which two lange stone wheels follow each other, revolving upon a cir- 
cular bed, the whole coustiuction being about the same as the Spanish 
or Mexican arrastre used for crushing and amalgamating gold ores. 
The sumac thus pulverized is then passed through bolting screens, to 
separate the finer from the coarser particles. 

In this country, where sumac is manufactured — and this is done more 
extensively in Virginia than elsewhere — the leaves are collected and 
cured by the country people and sold and delivered to owners of mills 
for grinding. Their ijarticnlar object being, of course, to secure the 
largest possible quantity of product at the lowest cost, little attention 
is given to the (luality obtained or the manner of collecting. 

The most intelligent dealers in the raw material urge upon collectors 
to observe the following particulars, and even endeavor, by selection of 
the product when buying, to force them to do so : The leaf should be 
taken when full of sap, bi fore it has turned red, has begun to wither, or 
has been affected by frost, to insure a maximum value for tanning pur- 



12 



CULTURE OF SUMAC IN SICILY. 



poses. Eitlier the leaf-bearing stems may be stripped off or the entire 
stalk may be cut away and the leaves upon it allowed to wither before 
being carried to the drying shed, but care mui5t be observed that they 
are neither scorched nor bleached by the sun. When wilted, they are 
carried to a covered i»lace and si)read upon open shelving or racks to 
drj', and the pi-ecaution here involved is a necessarj- one, and avoids the 
deposit in any one place of a quantity so great as to cause danger to the 
q-uality of the product by overheating and fermentation. It secures 
the double advantage of allowing free circulation of air thi'ough and 
about the leaves and provides a large drying surface within a compara- 
tively small space. Sumac should be allowed to remain within the dry- 
inghouse at least one month before sending to the market, and in case 
of bad weather a longer period may l)e required. When ready for pack- 
ing for shipment it should be perfectly dry, and, consequently, very 
brittle, otherwise it is likely to suffer injury in warehouses from heating 
and fermentation. 

Buyers of sumac leaves for grinding depend largely upon their color 
for the determination of their value, and tliey should therefore, when 
ready for market, present a bright green color, which* is an evidence 
that they have suffered from neither rain after being gathered nor from 
heating during the process of drying. Leaves having a moldy odor or 
appearance are, of course, promptly rejected. 

The price of the i-aw product, as delivered to the mills this year in 
Virginia, will range about 75 cents per hundred pounds, and the quan- 
tity will probably reach 7,000 to 8,000 tons, and this is collected at any 
time between July 1 and the appearance of frost. 

The aiuouuts and values of the annual importations of foreign sumac 
to the United States, the time best suited to making collections for se- 
curing a given quality of product, and the present methods employed 
for preparing sumac for consumption in the arts, may be gleaned from 
the following abstracts from the i-esults of my investigations, published 
in the Annual Report of the Department for 1877 and from an article in 
the report for 18G9, which we deem it of value and interest to introduce 
here: 



Table showing the qii tin tit i/ and value of the annual importations of foreign sumac to the 

United States since 18137. 



T«ar ending — 


Quantity. 


Value. 


-TllTlA ^0 IfiPt? 


Pound*. 
13, 790, 990 
11, 842, 451 


$559, 421 




468, 362 




536, 083 




9, (i34, 367 
10,341,787 
10, 028, 912 
13, 160, 114 
16. 718, 678 

16, 542, 548 

17, 642, 960 
21,430,641 
15, 668, 581 
12, 981, 675 


418, 919 


]g71^ 


420, 823 




383, .570 


ly73 


463, 780 




511,941 




533, 713 


« 1876 




62 1, 169 






736, 390 


jP7g ., 


508, 247 




394, 631 







CULTURE OF SUMAC IN SICILY. 13 

" We see, therefore, that the annual consumption of the foreign product 
approximates 8,000 tons. This does not take into account that brought 
in by snuigghiig and false entries, which is said to be very con- 
siderable." 

"There is another inii)ortant comparison to be made liere, viz., the dif- 
ference in the value of tlie foreign and that of the home product. The 
value of the imi>ortations for 1870 amounts to the sum of $()2J:,109 gold, 
while the value of the American product will not exceed $420,000 cur- 
rency. Later advices from a private source state that tlie importa- 
tion of sumac for the present year amounts to 11,000 tons, or $1,100,00(> 
gold, estimating the value of tlie product at $100* per ton. Yet it has 
been conclusively proven that the proi)ortion of tannic acid in the latter 
exceeds tliat found iu the former by 6 or S per cent. It has often been 
stated that this difference iu favor of the American ijroduct is very 
much greater, but my own investigations have failed to confirm such 
statenieuts, and I have been unable to find any I'eliable analyses tliat 
support them. Notwithstanding this higher percentage of tannic acid 
in the American product, we undertook this summer to determine at 
what time during the season it is at the maximum, iu order, by giving 
instructions concerning tlie time for collection based upon results of 
such iTivestigation, to bring about a possible improvement in the prod- 
uct. At the same time, it was obvious to us that we must look for 
some other source for the main cause of the difference in the values of 
the American and Sicilian productions, and why the latter is so much 
preferred by tanners and dyers. Upon inquiry among the dealers and 
practical tanners, we fiiul that by using sumac of Siciliau growth and 
manufacture it is possible to make the finer white leathers so much used 
for gloves and fancy shoes, while by the employment of tlie American 
product the leather resulting has a disagreable yellow or dark color. 
Many attemi)ts have beeu made by those interested in collecting and 
grinding, by careful attention to the methods employed, to impro\'e the 
quality of the home product and save the extra $50 per ton, which is. 
the present difference between the prices of American ami Sicilian 
sumac." 

• "In many cases these attempts have been partially successful, but not 
entirely so, and, as will appear below, the difficulty in question cannot 
be altogether remedied in this way. Since the present analyses, and 
those published elsewhere, show a higher percentage of tannic acid iu 
favor of the American product, it is evident that the difficulty must de- 
pend entirely upon a coloring matter, which, according to Loewe (Fre- 
seuius's Zeitschri/t fur Analytische Chemle. 1873, pp. 127, 128), consist.s 
of quercitrin and quercetiu, which exists in larger quantity iu the 
American than in the Sicilian." t 



* American market price. 

t In the progress of my work I succeeded iu separating a brown crystallized sub- 
stance iu the following maimer: An extract of 100 grains of Fredericksburg snmcc. 



14 CULTURE OF SUMAC IN SICILY. 

"Endeavors were made to deteriiiiae a ready and praetical mode by 
•which the separation of these coloring matters from tlie tannic acid la 
solution and their estimation might be eftected, but from the fact that 
their deportment with reagents is so simihxr to that of tannic acid, and 
their solubility in water appears to be so much modified by the presence 
of tannic acid, our endeavors to this end were unsuccessful. But while 
there may be no practicable method which may be applied to the sepa- 
ration of the coloring matter when in solution, we believe we have dis- 
covered how it may be entirely avoided. The manner in which this may 
be efiected will appear later on." 

" In the mean time, let us compare the percentages of tannic acid in the 
product, as indicated by our estimations in specimens collected at stated 
intervals during the season. Through the courtesy of Mr. German 
Smith, of Winchester, Va., samples of sumac were collected in the mouths 
of June, July, and August, respectively. Of these samples, those col- 
lected in June and July were mixed varieties, and of the i)roduct col- 
lected iu August we secured saini)les of the leaves of Rhus fikthra and 
Rhus copaUina separately. For comparison with the Virginia material 
and for use in the latter portion of the work, we applied to Mr. William 
S. Soule, of Boston, Mass., for a sample of Sicilian sumac, and he very 
kindly and very promptly supplied it. In all of these samples the tan- 
nic acid was estimated by means of the method of Jean, i)ulilishcd iu 
the Bulletin de la Societe Chimlque de Paris, and mentioned in the An- 
nual Eeport of the Department for 1876." 

"I may state here that I found it convenient to modify somewhat the 
method as laid down by Jean. For instance, a decided improvement 
was experienced by increasing the strength of the iodine solution from 
4 grams iodine per liter to 8 grams ])er liter, and with the solution of 
this strength I obtained exceedingly satisfactory results." 

" For the analysis, I took 5 grams of each sample, placed them respect- 
ively in a casserole, poured upon them about 150 cubic centimeters of 
distilled water, aiul heated to boiling about fifteen minutes. After par- 
tial cooling and settling, the solutions were poured through linen filters 
and the residues treated in a similar manner with water, until all tannic 
acid was extracted. After the last boiling, the whole was placed upon 
a filter, and when the liquid had nearly all passed through, the portion 
remaining was forced through by pressure. The solutions were then 
made up to 500 cubic centimeters, and for each assay 10 cubic centimeters 



contaiuiiig 23.71 per cent, of taiiuic acid, was treated with solution of plumbic acetate, 
and the resulting precipitate, after separation by filtration and wasliing, w.as rubbed 
up with alcohol, and finally placed in suspension iu a large volume of alcohol, through 
■which sulphuretted hydrogen gas was subsequently passed, until complete decomposi- 
tion of the lead oonipouud was effected. After separating the sulphide of lead and 
slightly concentrating the alcoholic solution, the crystals foi'med. The crop oht.ained 
was not sufticient for complete examination, and the substance must, therefore, be the 
subject of future investigation. 



Cl'LTURE OF SUMAC IN SICILY. 



15 



were taken, 
table : 



Tlie results obtained are indicated in tlie followiug 



A'aiiety. 



Time of collection. 



Wiuche.ster Juised June 

Do July .... 

"Wincheater l!hu$ glabra i August. 

■WiiH'luvstcr Ithns copallina .August . 

Sicilian Rhus curiaria 



« « o 
a a a 
Pi 



22.75 
27.38 
23. 56 
16.99 
24.27 



"It is evident, therefore, that iu order to securfe the maxiinmn amount 
of tannic acid, the sumac should be collected in July." 

" But, as l)efore stated, the coloring matter of the leaves has an im- 
portant intiuence upon the value of the product, and it appeared of value 
to determine when it was present in smaller (Quantities.'" 

In this connection, and iu corroboration of the results we have obt:iined, 
we may quote the following article from the Journal (T Agriculture Pra- 
tique (ISSO, I, 514), by Trof K. Macagno, director of the agricultural 
station of Palermo, in Sicily. The results show that the higher percentage 
of tannic acid obtains about the 1st of July, and iu the younger leaves. 

"Among the plants furnishing products of industrial interest, certain 
species of Terebinthacea', the Ixhus cnriarin (vulg., sumac), the Rhus 
cotinus (vulg., fustic), and the Rhus verui.v (vulg., Japan varnish) are 
well known on account of the tanning, coloring, medicinal, and resinous 
substances they produce in their stalks and leaves." 

" 111 the south of France [Alpes maritimes) and Western Liguria (Italy) 
fustic is cultivated which gives an aromatic and astringent bark, em- 
ployed as febrifuge, and a wood used for dyeing goods orange yellow 
In Sicily very large exportations are made of dried and pulverized 
sumac, which gives a good and abundant product in soils well exposed 
to the sun, even with little care on the part of the grower." 

"Leaves of this valuable shrub furnish a tanning material widely used 
and esteemed in the manufacture of moroccos. The crop is collected 
iu July and August when the leaves tend to become yellow on their 
edges. They are dried in the air, pulverized, and put in sacks for market." 

" I have made researches on the formation of tannic acid in the leaves 
of sumac in 1879 by successive analyses made during the period of 
growth. The results calculated for 100 are as follows : 



■ 
Date. 


Water in leaves. 


Tannin In leaves. 


Averages. 




Upper. 


Lower. 

60.23 
63.40 
63.44 
62. 24 
60. .33 
61.80 


Upper. 


Lower. 


Water. 


Tannin. 


.Jane 10, 1879 


58.15 
.57.21 
.52. 47 
51. 15 
49.80 
48.15 


24.93 
24.92 
25 82 
24. 75 
23 80 
21.91 


17.45 
16.11 
15.27 
10.81 
9.44 
8 77 


59.19 
60.30 
57.95 
56.69 
55. 06 
54.97 


21.19 


.June Ifi, 1879 

.June 27, 1879 

.July 14,1879 

Julv 29,1879 


20.51 
20. ,54 
17.78 
16. 62 
15.34 








57,36 


18:60 













16 



CULTURE OF SUMAC IN SICILY. 



The (leteriiiinatioiis of tannin were maile l),vtlie method of Flek',.inoiUi- 
fied by Simpkin, with aninioniacal acetate of copper. 

"The results show, l.st, that leaves of sumac of the upper extremities 
of the stalk are always richer iu tannic acid than those of the base ;. 
and, 2d, that the increase of age of the plant and its parts is accom- 
panied by a general diminution of this acid. Yet, in the interest of 
cultivators, the collection of the crop should be delayed as long a-s pos- 
sible, because the diminution of tannin in the leaves will be abundantly 
compensated for by the quantity of the product." 

"In my work it at tirst seemed reasonable to suppose that leaves from 
the young growth of wood, in which the coloring matter is not yet formed 
as in the older wood, might be collected and found free from this trouble- 
some substance, but examinations proved tliat this was not the case. I 
therefore determined to make some experiments upon the color of precipi- 
tates with gelatine, made by means of solutions of the material collected 
in the dififerent months, having the same strength in tannic acid for each."' 

"For the purpose of expeiiment, the qualities indicated in the follow- 
ing table were taken, and to each specimen was added about 150 cubic 
centimeters of distilled water, and boiled about fifteen minutes, filtered 
through linen, and pressed out without washing, replacing, the water- 
which had been removed by evaporation during the boiling and other- 
wise, making the volume of each solution up to 150 cubic centimeters : 



Variety. 



Date of coUoctiui^ 



a 
"•I 



"Winchester raised ' June 

Do Ju!y.-.- 

WiuchvaU'T Rhus copalliaa ' Ausust . 

Winchester if Am (/'a (""o I August . 

Sicilian Ukus coriaria -- 



Grams. 
4.4 
3. Gj 
5.8 
4.25. 
4.1 



"The gelatine solution employed contained 5 grams in 50 cubic centi- 
meters of water. In the experiments I took 50 cubic centimeters of 
each sumac solution and added thereto 10 cubic centimeters of the solu- 
tion of gelatine. The colors of the precipitates obtained were as fol- 
lows: 



Variety. 



"Winchester mixed 

Do 

Winchester Rhus cnpalUtia - 
Winchester lihas galhra ... 

Freilcricksburg mixed 

Sicilian 



Color of precipitates. 



June Nearly white. 

July i Decidedly yellowish wliite. 

August ... I Dirty yellow. 

August... Very diity white. 

August ... 1 Dirty yellow. 

August ...: Wliite, slighlly yellowi.sh liiijj;e. 



"In some of the tests the precipitates obtained by means of the solu- 
tion of the June collections of Winchester mixed sumacs were perfectly 
-white, and very much cleaner than any obtained with the Sicilian prod- 



CULTURE OF SUMAC IN SICILY. 17 

net. The difference in the color of the precipitate.s obtained from the 
sohitiou of the June collection and that olitaiued from solntious of the 
samples of later collections was sufiiciently marked to prove that the 
great difficulty in the way of the universal employment of the American 
to the exclusion of the expensive Sicilian product may he obviated by 
malinfi our collections early in the season; that is, in the mouth of June. 
The peiceutage of tannic acid is not, it is true, quite as higlias obtains 
in July, but it compares favorably with the Sicilian product, which, be 
it remeuibered, communicates a slightly yellowish tinge to the gelatine 
lirecipitate. The amount of coloring matter found in the July collec- 
tion is sufficient to account for the difference of $50 per ton in the mar- 
ket values of the sumac of home and foreign growth, regardless of the 
proportion of tannic acid. We would, therefore, advise that for the 
purpose of tanning white and delicately-colored leathers the collection 
be made in June, while for tanning dark-colored leathers, and for dying 
and calico printing in dark colors, where the slightly yellow color will 
have no injurions effect, the collection be made in July. It appears 
that for all purposes the sumac collected after the 1st of August is in- 
ferior in (juality." 

"In view of the facts here presented, we cannot help urging upon 
manutacturers the importance of encouraging the home i>roduction ; of 
insisting that the collections be made early in the season, in order thus 
to luing about such a change in this matter as to prevent the annual 
expenditure of over $000,000 in gold for the sumac of foreign growth. 
Tliey may insist upon a classification depending ui)on the time of collec- 
tion and the behavior of aqueous solutions of the material with solu- 
tions of gelatine. They might also insist upon a guarantfeed percentage 
of tannic acid. By encouragement of home trade and home produc- 
tions, there is no reason why the enormous annual expenditure above 
referred to should not be saved to American producers." 

" If the classifications mentioned were required, tho.se interested in the 
collection would take care to secure the best quality in the product by 
the means here shown to be at their command, while merely an otter 
of an advanced price, which the consumers can readily afford, would 
doubtless be sufficient to bring this about, and at the same time induce 
others to engage in the enterprise of collection, so that in a short time 
the home supply would be not only ample to meet the home demand, 
but also to make a good surplus for export to foreign markets. And all 
this may be secured from a spontaneous growth upon lands that would 
otherwise be almost utterly worthless, and with no immediate demand 
for the cultivation of the shrub." 

"The importance of the matter also warrants the encouragement on the 

part of our legislators in Congress by the increase of the rate of duty 

uow imposed upon the importations of sumac. Such increase should 

not be made of immediate effect, but should be deferred until after the 

2sc 



18 CULTURE OF SUMAC IN SICILY. 

1st of August of the coming year. No inconvenience would be then felt 
by cousuuiers on account of deficient supply to meet tbe present de- 
mands and tbe advanced cost consequent tbereupou, while the increased 
supply of the bome product that must follow such encouragement would 
be sufficient to meet future demands." 

In connection with this subject, a synopsis of the method of grinding 
•. and seiiarating the different grades of sumac, which is described in the 
Annual Eei)ort of the Department for 18C9, may be of some interest. 

Through Mr. Cornelius S. Ramsburg we have secured specimens of 
the products from the different stages of the process employed, and 
Lave taken occasion to estimate their value with reference to the tannic 
acid they contain. The raw material as brought to the mill (a complete 
description of which we give below, quoted from the Annual Report for 
1809) is passed through the grinding ai)paratus, and from this, after 
grinding, is passed through a revolving screen, divided into two sections, 
the first of which is provided with a sieve with 36 meshes iier square 
inch, while the second part has but 9 meshes per inch. 

"A mill for grinding sumac leaves consists of a heavy solid circular bed 
of wood (marked A in the accomitauying engraving), 15 feet in diame- 
ter, with a depression around the edge B, a few inches deep and a foot 
wide for the reception of the ground sumac from the bed, and two 
chasers oi' rollers, C C, weighing about 2,500 pounds each, 5 or feet iu 
diameter, and provided with teeth of iron, or prefeiably of wood, thickly 
inserted. If the axle of a cart were set npon a pivot iu its center, the 
wheels of the cart would describe a compound revolution similar to that 
of the chasers of a sumac-mill. Most mills have to be stopped to allow 
the unloading of the bed, but a process, exhibited in the accompanying 
engraving, has been patented by Mr. Chase, of Alexandria, Ya., which 
obviates this delay. The apparatus consists of an angular arm, D,. 
attached to a scraper, E E, and worked by a lever, F, which passes 
through the hollow shaft G and extends to the room above, where it 
terminates in a handle, as seen in the section at the top of the engrav- 
ing. The scraper carries the ground sumac to the opening H, whence 
it is carried by the elevator, miirked in the second engraving H. such as 
is common in flour-mills, to the revolving sieve or screen K, in a room 
above. After screening, the sumac passes down through the tube L, 
aud is ijacked iu bags, fifteen to the long ton (2,240 pounds) ; this article 
being always sold by that weight. The chasers and beds are inclosed 
iu a huge case or drum, M M, and the grinding is done by the applica- 
tion of power to the upright shaft G, between the chasers, and which 
moves them. The mills are fed from above. The packing is sometimes 
done by machinery alone. This description is of the best mills, which 
cost about $3,000." 

In Europe and in some parts of the South sumac is still ground by 
stones revolving on a stone bed, and the sifting is often done by hand. 



PLATE I. 





kSUMac mill. 



PLATE n. 




SUMAC MILL. 



CULTURE OF SUMAC IN SICILY. ] 9 

" The products resulting in tliis country are: 

" 1. Ground sumac, grade No. 1.'' 

" 2. Fine stems and unground particles of leaves." 

" 3. Coarse stems." 

"The second product is again passed tlirongL tlie mill, and the useful 
product resulting is ground sumac, grade No. 2." 

"No use is made of the coarse stems, but it has been suggested that, 
on account of the considerable proportion of yellow coloring matter they 
contain, they be employed in the production of tla"vine. Whether they 
may be thus applied must be the subject of future experiments." 

"Estimations of the tannic acid in these several products ga\-e the 
following results: 

Per cent. 

No. 1 sum.ic 26 to 28 

Exhausted stems. li. 14 

No. 2 sumac 14. T-J " 

" The quality of the No. 2 sumac is often improved before sending it 
to the market by admixture of that grade No. 1 suihcient to increase the 
proportion of tannic acid in it to 18 or 20 per cent.'' 

"Mr. Eamsburg's kindness has also enabled me to make estimations 
pf tannic acid In varieties of sumac which grow extensively in Virginia, 
other than those analyzed and mentioned in the previous tables, and he 
has brought in specimens of Ehus tjlabra and Rhus typldna. In the fol- 
lowing table we compare the percentage of tannic acid they contain with 
that found in the R. (jJahra and R. capaUina of Winchester. They were 
all collected in August, and do not give a maximum yield, but tlie iig- 
nres below will serve to a certain extent to compare theoi : 

Pe.r ceut. 

B. ijiphina, Georgetown. I). C Iti. li? 

B. glabra, Georgetown, D. C 16. JO 

B. fflabra, Winchester, Va 23. .:>6 

B.iapalUm,, Winchester. Va 16.9y' 

" These CvStimations should be duplicated the coming year upon speci- 
mens collected at favorable seasons. It is probable that a comparison 
between the varieties might lead to some facts of great value to collect- 
ors and dealers." 



SUMAC 



The bushes or small trees yielding sumac belong to the geuiis Hhus of the natural 
order Ankardiacew. The gemis is a large one, comprisiug about 120 species, growing 
in dificreut parts of the world. Some species furnish a resinous juice, -n-hicli in a 
Japan S])ecieb (Jihiis remix) is used in the preparation of varnish and lacquer. A 
number of species are more or less poisonous, among them the plant commonly called 
jioison ivy (Tihtis toxicocl(ndron), and another called swamp dogwood (IHiks veiieiKila). 
The genus may he briefly characterized as follows : 

Rhus.— Trees orshnihs. with leaves alternate, and either simple or commonly pin- 
nate, with small flowers in panicles. The calyx is Ti-parted and persistent, the corolla 
of .5 petals, which are imbricated in the bud. There are 5 stamens, inserted on a mi- 
nute flattened disk or ring in the bottom of the calyx, and in the center rises the one- 
celled ovary with 3 .styles. The fruit is a kind of a dry drupe, or a small stony fruit, 
with a dry or dryish covering. The flowers are mostly of a greenish-white color. 

Our native .species belong to a section which has polygamous flowers in a terminal 
tliyrsoid panicle ; the fruit globular, clothed with acid crimson hairs ; the stone 
smooth ; the leaves odd-pinnate . 

21 



PLATE III. 
Rhus TYPHiNA L. Staglioru .Suiiiac. 

Younif branches and leaf stalks densely coverKd wiMi soft velvety hairs, the leaves 
Siinetimes a foot in length aul 6 inches in hreadth, composed of from 5 to 12 pairs of 
leaflets, which .are ohlong-lauocolate, long pointed, couspicuously toothed ou the mar- 
gin, of a bright green color above ami pah- beneath. The panicle of dowers and fruit 
is usually about 6 inches long at the apex of the branches. 

It is usually a shrub 8 or 10 feet high, but sometimes attains the height of 20 or 30 
feet. The wood is of an orange color. 
22 



PLATE iir. 




KlIUS TYPHINA, L. 



PLATE IV. 
Rhus glabiia L. Smooth Sumac. 

Yoiiiig branches and leafstalks smooth and sometimes with a whitish bloom (glan- 
cons), having about the same number of leaflets as in the preceding species, of much 
the same shape, but smooth, conspicuously whitened beneath, and with fewer and 
coarser teeth. There is great diflereuce in the size of the leaflets, in some forms they 
being 1 inch broad and 4 or 5 inches long, and in others only about half that size. 

A variety occurs in Pennsylvania which has the leaflets deeply gashed, so as to be 
more or less twice pinnate. This species is very frequently dicecious ; that is, some of 
the plants bear only male flowers and others only female flowers. The branches of 
the panicle and the drupes are somewhat hairy, but much less so than in lihiis iij- 
phina. This is a smaller shrub than the Staghorn sumac, usually growing from 3 to 10 
feet high. 
24 



PLATS IV. 




Khfs glabra, L. 



PLATE V. 
Rhus copai.lina L. Dwarf Sumac. 

Youug branclies and leaf stalks finely downy, the branches frequeutly bearing d«- 
merous small resinous glands; the leaves 5 to 10 inches long, and composed of from 
9 to 1',) leaflets ; in some forms the leaflets being large and few in number, and in 
others small and more numerous, varying from ovate to lanceolate and pointed, smooth 
and shining above, pubescent beneath, the margin generally entire. The two halves 
of the leaflet are usually uneiiual, one side extending farther down the mid-vein than 
the other. The petiole between the leaflets is winged with a narrow leaf-like mar- 
gin. The panicles are sessile and spreading, the drupes rod and s])aringly hairy. 

This species is usually from 3 to (3 or 8 feet. 
26 



PLATE V. 




Khus COPALLINA, L. 



PLATE VI. 

Rhus cotinus L. SmoUc-trce, Venetian Sumac. 

This species belongs to a distinct section of tbc genu.*, and tas by some bota- 
nists been placed in a separate genus. Its leaves are single instead of pinnate, as in 
the preceding species, the flowers in loOse, open panicles, "followed rarely by little 
half heart-shaped fruits; usually most of the flowers are abortive, while their iiedicels 
Ipiigtht n, branch, and bear long phiniy hairs, making large or light feathery or cloud- 
like bunches, either greenish or tinged with red, which are very ornamental." 

This species is quite frequently seen in cultivation, and is sometimes called smoke- 
bush or cloud-bush. It is a smooth shrub, usually 6 to 10 feet high, with thin, smooth, 
obovate leaves l-J to 3 inches long, with entire margins. 

This species is a native of the south of Europe and Asia Minor. 
Avery similar species grows wild in some parts of Alabama, the Hhus cotinoides, 
Nutt. 

28 



PLATE VI. 




UK11.1S..OEU. 



w.w.v^':.\\^\_'^,t>iG. 



KHX'S COTINU8, L. 



PLATE VII. 
Rhus coriaria L. European Sumac. 

This species belongs to the same section :is the preceding. The young branches and 
leafstalks are rough-hairy ; the leaves consist of from 11 to 15 leaflets, which are ob- 
long or elliptical, 1 to 2 inches long, obtuse or obtusish, and coarsely toothed on the 
margin. The iipper surface is rather rough, with short hairs ; the lower surface also, 
at least on the nerves. The upper portion of the leaf stalk between the first and sec- 
ond pairs of leaflets is usually narrowly wing-margined. The color of the leaves, is a 
light or grayish green. The flower pauitk-s are more oi)en than in the American spe- 
cies described, the flowers and drupes being .also hairy. 

In size it probably corresponds to our /,'. Ii/jihina, being a large bush, or becoming a 
small tree. 

It is a native of the southern part of Euvojie and of Asia Minor. 
30 



PLATE VII. 




ItHXJS COPaAEIA, L. 



PLATE VIII. 
Rhus pextaphvlla Desf. Tezera Sumac. 

This species belougs to still auotlier s^etiou of the geuus, which is characterized bj 
haviug (liii-cious flowers, 3 short but distiuct styles, and a roundish tuberculatet 
drupe, with compressed nutlet. 

It has small palmately 3 to .'i foliate leaves , the leaflets .sessile, linear-lanceolate, .sorai 
of them broader and 3 toothed at the apex. The petiole or leaf-stalk is short and uar 
rowly wiug-margiued. The leaves are from 1 to 2 inches long. The biauches ar< 
short and tipped with spines. 

The flowers are few, in short axillary racemes au inch or two long. 

It is a native of Sicily and the Barbary States. 
3-2 



PLATE VIII. 




IiHus PE^'TAl>uvLn;^r. Desf. 



LEMr'08 



